NAMA : Sandi Rosadi
NIM : 051603503125173
PSIKOLOGI KOMUNIKASI
KOMUNIKASI MASSA
Komunikasi massa adalah proses di mana organisasi media membuat dan menyebarkan pesan kepada khalayak banyak (publik).[1]
Organisasi - organisasi media ini akan menyebarluaskan pesan-pesan yang
akan memengaruhi dan mencerminkan kebudayaan suatu masyarakat, lalu
informasi ini akan mereka hadirkan serentak pada khalayak luas yang
beragam. Hal ini membuat media menjadi bagian dari salah satu institusi
yang kuat di masyarakat.
Dalam komunikasi massa, media massa menjadi otoritas tunggal yang
menyeleksi, memproduksi pesan, dan menyampaikannya pada khalayak.
Ciri – ciri komunikasi massa
1. Komunikator dalam komunikasi massa melembaga
2. Komunikan dalam komunikasi massa bersifat heterogen
3. Pesannya bersifat umum
4. Komunikasi berlangsung satu arah
5. Komunikasi massa menimbulkan keserempakan
6. Komunikasi massa mengandalkan peralatan teknis
7. Komunikasi massa dikontrol oleh gate keeper
Fungsi komunikasi massa
Pada umumnya, komunikasi massa memilliki kaitan yang kuat dengan media
massa. Secara khusus, komunikasi massa memiliki 10 macam fungsi, sebagai
berikut
1. Fungsi Informasi
2. Fungsi Hiburan
3. Fungsi Persuasi
4. Transmisi Budaya
5. Mendorong Integrasi Sosial
6. Pengawasan
7. Korelasi
8. Pewarisan Sosial
9. Melawan Kekuasaan Represif
10. Menggugat Hubungan Trikotomi
Tujuh komponen komunikasi massa
Menurut De Felur dan Denis, terdapat tujuh komponen komunikasi massa, diantaranya
1. Komunikator. Dalam media masa, komunikator merupakan pihak dari
media yang menyampaikan pesan kepada khalayak, seperti jurnalis.
2. Pesan. Pesan berkaitan dengan konten yang dibuat dari sudut pandang media massa tersebut terhadap suatu isu tertentu.
3. Media. Dalam komunikasi massa, media diartikan sebagai saluran yang
bersifat fisik, seperti media cetak atau media elektronik.
4. Komunikan. Komunikan terdiri dari kumpulan individu yang menerima pesan dari media massa.
5. Gate Keeper. Dalam komunikasi massa, gate keeper berperan untuk
menentukan pesan masa yang akan disampaikan ke komunikan dan mana yang
tidak.
6. Gangguan.
7. Timbal Balik.
Efek komunikasi massa
• Efek komunikasi masa terhadap individu
Menurut Steven A. Chafee, komunikasi massa memiliki efek-efek berikut terhadap individu:
1. Efek ekonomis: menyediakan pekerjaan, menggerakkan ekonomi (contoh:
dengan adanya industri media massa membuka lowongan pekerjaan)
2. Efek sosial: menunjukkan status (contoh: seseorang kadang-kadang
dinilai dari media massa yang ia baca, seperti surat kabar Pos Kota
memiliki pembaca berbeda dibandingkan dengan pembaca surat kabar Kompas.
3. Efek penjadwalan kegiatan
4. Efek penyaluran/ penghilang perasaan
5. Efek perasaan terhadap jenis media
Menurut Kappler (1960) komunikasi masa juga memiliki efek:
1. conversi, yaitu menyebabkan perubahan yang diinginkan dan perubahan yang tidak diinginkan.
2. memperlancar atau malah mencegah perubahan
3. memperkuat keadaan (nilai, norma, dan ideologi) yang ada.
• Efek komunikasi massa terhadap masyarakat dan kebudayaan
1. Teori Penentuan Agenda oleh Combs dan Shaw achil
Teori- teori komunikasi massa
1. Hypodermic needle theory
2. Cultivation theory
3. Cultural imperalism theory
4. Media equation theory
5. Spiral silence theory
6. Technological determinism theory
7. Uses and gratification theory
8. Agenda setting theory
9. Media critical theory
Minggu, 13 Januari 2019
Sosiologi Komunikasi ( Sosiologi Media Lama dan Media Baru )
NAMA : Sandi Rosadi
NIM : 051603503125173
SOSIOLOGI KOMUNIKASI
Perbandingan Media Lama & Media Baru
· Jenis Media Lama dan Media Baru
1. Media Lama
Media lama merupakan proses produksi dan penyimpanan data atau
informasi yang dibagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu media cetak (koran,
majalah, tabloid) dan media elektronik (radio, televisi).
2. Media Baru
Media Baru merupakan teknologi komunikasi digital yang terhubung
dengan jaringan internet, dimana dalam penyampainnya harus di
distribusikan melalui internet atau online. Media baru meliputi portal
online, televisi online, radio streaming. Namun, sekarang ini media
sosial seperti Twitter, Instagram, Youtube, dan lain-lain dapat
dikatakan media baru karena informasi dapat didistribusikan melalui
media sosial tersebut.
· Karakteristik Media Lama dan Media Baru
1. Media Lama
- Harus menunggu informasis sesuai jam yang dijadwalkan.
- Khalayak tidak terhubung pada media dan sesama pengguna.
- Komunikasi anonim dan heterogen.
- Mengutamakan isi ketimbang hubungan pada kondisi tertentu.
- Umpan balik bersifat tertunda dan tidak langsung.
2. Media Baru
- Informasi pada situs tertentu tidak bersifat formal sehingga kredibilitas informasi tidak dapat dipertanggungjawabkan.
- Mudah dalam pencarian informasi yang ingin didapatkan dan tidak terbatas pada jadwal tertentu.
- Para pengguna dapat terhubung secara langsung.
- Tidak memungkinkan untuk bersinggungan dengan ruang publik.
· Kelebihan dan Kekurangan Media Lama dan Media Baru
1. Kelebihan Media Lama
- Lebih dapat dipertanggungjawabkan
- Harga relatif murah
- Jangkauan luas
2. Kekurangan Media Lama
- Biaya percetakan mahal
- Relatif lebih lama dalam menyajikan informasi
- Komunikasi satu arah
- Desentralisasi
3. Kelebihan Media Baru
- Informasi dapat disimpan dan dibuka kembali sewaktu-waktu
- Informasi dapat diakses dimana saja dan kapan saja
- Dapat berupa teks, gambar, serta video
- Para pengguna dapat saling berinteraksi satu sama lain
4. Kekurangan Media Baru
- Membutuhkan biaya besar
- Tidak semua masyarakat dapat mengaksesnya
- Reporter dituntut untuk kerja keras
- Sulitnya kontrol sosial
- Informasi sulit dipertanggungjawabkan
· Karakteristik Audiens Media Lama dan Media Baru
1. Karakteristik Audiens Media Lama
- Khalayak tidak terhubung langsung dengan media
- Khalayak tidak bisa terhubung satu sama lain
- Bersifat homogen (tergantung sasaran program tertentu)
- Khalayak sulit memberikan umpan balik
2. Karakteristik Audiens Media Baru
- Khalayak dapat terhubung dengan media
- Khalayak dapat terhubung dan berinteraksi satu sama lain
- Khalayak dapat lebih kritis dalam memberikan umpan balik
Minggu, 06 Januari 2019
Psikologi Komunikasi ( SISTEM KOMUNIKASI ORGANISASI )
NAMA : SANDI ROSADI
NIM : 051603503125173
PSIKOLOGI KOMUNIKASI
NIM : 051603503125173
PSIKOLOGI KOMUNIKASI
SISTEM KOMUNIKASI ORGANISASI
Redding
dan Sanborn (dalam Muhammad, 2009:65) mengatakan bahwa komunikasi
organisasi adalah pengiriman dan penerimaan informasi dalam organisasi
yang kompleks. Yang termasuk dalam bidang ini adalah komunikasi
internal, hubungan manusia, hubungan persatuan pengelola, komunikasi downward atau komunikasi dari atasan dan bawahan, komunikasi upward atau
komunikasi dari bawahan ke atasan, komunikasi horizontal atau
komunikasi dari orang-orang yang sama level atau tingkatnya dalam
organisasi, keterampilan berkomunikasi dan berbicara, mendengarkan,
menulis dan komunikasi evaluasi program.
Onong
U. Effendy (dalam Suprapto, 2011:105) menyatakan organisasi sebagai
suatu sistem yang mapan dari mereka yang bekerja sama untuk mencapai
tujuan bersama, melalui jenjang kepangkatan dan pembagian tugas. Karena
komunikasi dalam organisasi mempunyai hubungan dengan satu atau lebih
dimensi-dimensi struktur organisasi (misalnya peranan, status,
kompleksitas teknologi, pola-pola otoritas, dan sebagainya). Komunikasi
organisasi dapat bersifat formal dan informal. Komunikasi formal adalah
komunikasi yang disetujui oleh organisasi itu sendiri dan sifatnya
berorientasi kepentingan organisasi. Isinya berupa cara kerja di dalam
organisasi, produktivitas, dan berbagai pekerjaan yang harus dilakukan
dalam organisasi. Adapun komunikasi informal adalah komunikasi yang
disetujui secara sosial. Orientasinya bukan pada organisasi , tetapi
lebih kepada anggotanya secara individual (Wiryanto, 2006:55).
Perbedaan
konseptual mengenai komunikasi organisasi ini terlihat dalam fenomena.
Down dan Larimer mengemukakan 21 bidang yang diajarkan dalam mata kuliah
komunikasi organisasi yaitu komunikasi dari atasan ke bawahan,
komunikasi dari bawahan kepada atasan, teori organisasi, komunikasi
horizontal, pembuatan keputusan, komunikasi kelompok kecil,
kepemimpinan, teknik penelitian, motivasi, interview, perubahan dan
inovasi, pengelolaan konflik, pengembangan organisasi, teknik
konferensi, teori manajemen, latihan konsultasi, mendengar, kepuasan
kerja, berbicara di muka umum, menulis dan latihan yang sensitif.
Organisasi sebagai kerangka (framework)
menunjukkan adanya pembagian tugas antara orang-orang di dalam
organisasi itu dan dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai tenaga pimpinan dan
tenaga yang dipimpin (Effendy, 2009:122). Komunikasi internal dibagi
menjadi dua dimensi, yaitu komunikasi vertikal dan komunikasi
horizontal.
a. Komunikasi Vertikal
Komunikasi vertikal terdiri dari downward communication dan upward communication, adalah komunikasi dari pemimpin kepada bawahan atau dari bawahan kepada pemimpin secara timbal balik (two way traffic communication). Jalan pemikiran manusia yang menjalankannya menentukan suksesnya proses komunikasi yang berdasarkan frame of reference dari masing-masing pelaku komunikasi (Effendy, 2009:36).
b. Komunikasi Horizontal
Komunikasi
horizontal ialah komunikasi secara mendatar, antara anggota sraf dengan
anggota staf, karyawan dengan sesama karyawan, dan sebagainya.
Komunikasi horizontal cenderung tidak formal, oleh karenanya desas-desus
sangat cepat menyebar baik tentang pimpinan maupun tentang kolega.
Desas-desus ini yang bisa berkembang menjadi konflik dalam organisasi.
Komunikasi
organisasi terjadi kapanpun setidak-tidaknya satu orang yang menduduki
suatu jabatan dalam suatu organisasi menafsirkan suatu pertunjukan.
Analisis komunikasi organisasi menyangkut penelaahan atas banyak
transaksi yang terjadi secara simultan. Sistem tersebut menyangkut
pertunjukan dan penafsiran pesan di antara lusinan atau bahkan ratusan
individu pada saat yang sama yang memiliki jenis-jenis hubungan
berlainan yang menghubungkan yang pikiran, keputusan dan perilakunya
diatur oleh kebijakan-kebijakan, regulasi, dan “aturan-aturan”, yang
mempunyai gaya berlainan dalam berkomunikasi, mengelola, dan memimpin,
yang dimotivasi oleh kemungkinan-kemungkinan yang berbeda, yang berada
pada tahap perkembangan berlainan dalam berbagai kelompok yang
mempersepsi iklim komunikasi berbeda; yang mempunyai tingkat kepuasan
berbeda dan tingkat kecukupan informasi yang berbeda pula; yang lebih
menyukai dan menggunkan jenis, bentuk dan metode komunikasi yang berbeda
dalam jaringan yang berbeda; yang mempunyai tingkat ketelitian pesan
yang berlainan; dan yang membutuhkan penggunaan tingkat materi dan
energi yang berbeda untuk berkomunikasi efektif (Pace dan Faules,
2006:33).
Meskipun
bermacam-macam persepsi dari para ahli mengenai komunikasi organisasi
ini tapi dari semuanya itu ada beberapa hal yang umum yang dapat
disimpulkan yaitu:
- Komunikasi organisasi terjadi dalam suatu sistem terbuka yang kompleks yang dipengaruhi oleh lingkungannya sendiri baik internal maupun eksternal
- Komunikasi organisasi meliputi pesan dan arusnya, tujuan, arah dan media.
- Komunikasi organisasi meliputi orang dan sikapnya, perasaannya, hubungannya dan keterampilan atau skilnya.
Dilihat
dari prespektif manajemen, organisasi merupakan elaborasi sekelompok
saluran-saluran yang saling berhubungan, dirancang untuk mengumpulkan,
dan menganalisis menyaring informasi. Komunikasi menyediakan alat-alat
untuk pengambilan keputusan, melaksanakan keputusan menerima umpan balik
an mengoreksi tujuan serta prosedur organisasi. “Apabila komunikasi
berhenti maka aktivitas organisasi akan berhenti. Dengan demikian
tinggallah kegiatan-kegiatan individu yang tidak
terorganisasi”(Suprapto, 2011:106).
Psikologi Komunikasi ( Resume Chapter SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM )
NAMA : SANDI ROSADI
NIM : 051603503125173
PSIKOLOGI KOMUNIKASI
CHAPTER 5. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
George Herbert Mead
Early social constructionist who believed that our thoughts, self-concept, and the wider community we live in are created through communication - symbolic interaction. (philosophy professor at University of Chicago for first three decades of 20th century)
Symbolic ineraction
The ongoing use of language and gestures in anticipation of how the other will react; a conversation; the way we learn to interpret the world
Mead believed that the true test of any theory is whether it is useful in solving complex social problems.
Herbert Blumer
Mead's chief disciple/student coined the term "symbolic interactionism"
Symbolic Interactionism is what kind of theory?
Interpretive theory that follows the socio-cultural tradition
According to Mead, human's are unique because we can talk to each other (symbolic interaction)- said it was the most human and humanizing activity that we engage in
Herbert Blumer stated three core principles of symbolic interactionism that deal with meaning, language, and thinking
Blumer's first premise of Meaning
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things; our interpretation is what counts; once people define a situation as real, it's very real in its consequences
Interactionist position on meaning-making
meaning-making is a community project
Interactionist's idea of causality
humans act on their definition of the situation; stimulus ----> interpretation ---> response
Blumer's second premise of Language
Meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other; meaning isn't inherent in objects nor is it pre-existent in a state of nature - it's negotiated through the use of language; names we use have no logical connection with the object at hand; words we use have default assumptions; significant symbols can be nonverbal and linguistic
What did Mead believe was the basis for human society?
symbolic naming
Interactionists claim the extent of knowing is dependent on the extent of naming
Blumer's third premise of Thinking an individual's interpretation of symbols is modified by his or her own thought processes. Symbolic interactionists describe thinking as inner conversation. mead called this "minding"
Minding
An inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions, and anticipate reactions before responding; self-talk; the pause that's reflective
Mead believed that animals act instinctively and without deliberation - they are unable to think reflectively. Mead's greatest contribution to our understanding of the way we think is his notion that humans have the unique capacity to take the role of the other; he was convinced that thinking is the mental conversation we have with others.
Taking the role of the other
The process of mentally imagining that you are someone else who is viewing you.
Looking-glass self
Mead's concept; the mental image that comes from taking the role of the other; the objective self; me (interactionist's claim this is socially constructed) - mead borrowed the phrase from sociologist Charles Cooley
Mead-Cooley hypothesis claims that "individuals' self- conceptions result from assimilating the judgments of significant others."
Symbolic interactionists are convinced the self is a function of language. without talk, there would be no self-concept
According to Mead, the self is an ongoing process combining the
"I" and the "me"
"I"
The subjective self; the spontaneous driving force that fosters all that is novel, unpredictable, and unorganized in the self. You never know your "I," because once it is known, it becomes your "me"
"Me"
The objective self; the image of self seen when one takes the role of the other. no "me" at birth; it's formed through continual symbolic interaction; seen as the organized society within the individual (according to Mead)
Generalized other
The composite mental image a person has of his or her self based on societal expectations and responses. Shapes how we think and interact within the community.
Society, according to Mead consists of individual actors who make their own choices- society in the making rather than society by previous design
Applications of Symbolic Interactionism
1. creating reality 2. meaningful research 3. generalized other 4. naming 5. self-fulfilling prophecy 6. symbol manipulation
Creating reality
goffman claims we are all involved in a constant negotiation with others to publicly define our identity and the nature of the situation
Mead advocates research through participant observation
Participant observation
A method of adopting the stance of an ignorant yet interested visitor who carefully notes what people say and do in order to discover how they interpret their world.
Name-calling can be devastating because the labels can force us to view ourselves in a warped mirror
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated.
Emmanuel Levinas
european Jewish philosopher; agrees with Mead that the self is socially constructed. Levinas' responsive "I" the self created by the way we respond to others (not the way others respond to us-what Mead believed); consists of both Mead's "I" and "me"
Ethical Echo term used by Levinas; The reminder that we are responsible to take care of each other; I am my brother's keeper. the way each of us meets that obligation shapes our "I"
Face of the "Other"
A human signpost that points to our ethical obligation to care for the other before we care for self.
Critique of Symbolic Interactionism poor objective (scientific) theory bc it doesn't meet scientific standards of prediction and testability; doesn't call for a reform of society; The theory's fluid boundaries, vague concepts, and undisciplined approach don't lend them- selves to an elegant summary; suffers from lack of clarity; may suffer from lack of overstatement
CHAPTER 7. EXPECTANCY VIOLATIONS THEORY
Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) originally focused on the expectations people have about the _____________ behavior of others.
Nonverbal
The study of a person's use of space is called:
Proxemics
Researcher Edward Hall claimed what four zones defined spatial distances for North Americans?
Intimate, personal, social, and public
Your own workspace and computer is considered:
Primary territory
The city park constitutes:
Public territory
Burgoon and Hale argue that two types of expectancies exist: pre-interactional and interactional. Pre-interactional expectations include:
The skills communicators possess before entering a conversation.
Violations of expectancies have _____________, or the ability to cause people to pay attention to the source of the arousal.
Arousal value
The distance at which one feels discomfort in the presence of another is called:
The threat threshold refers to the positive or negative assessment of an unexpected behavior.
Violation valence
EVT's original focus on personal space relates to which criterion for evaluating theory?
Scope
Created by:
Judee Burgoon (1988)
Edward T. Hall's (1966) work on PROXIMICS:
•Intimate Distance (0 - 18 inches)
•Personal Distance (1.5 - 4 feet)
•Social Distance (4 - 12 feet)
•Public Distance (12 - 25 feet)
Hall argued that effective communicators adjust:
Their nonverbal behavior to conform to the expectations of their communication partners.
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory:
•Expectations drive human interaction
•Expectations for human behavior are learned
•People make predictions about nonverbal behaviors
Burgoon pointed out people can:
Either conform or violate expectations.
Burgoon argued that sometimes violating the norms/expectations can be:
A superior strategy to conforming. She also realized that these norms differ by culture.
Territoriality:
A person's sense of ownership of an area or object.
Primary territory:
Exclusive domain over an area or object.
Secondary territory:
A person's affiliation with an area or object.
Public territories:
Open spaces for everyone.
When someone violates our expectation in communication:
We may have a negative - or a positive - reaction.
CHAPTER 16. COGNITIVE DISSONACE THEORY
dissonance : discord between behavior and belief
cognitive dissonance
distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person's two beliefs or a belief and an action
three hypotheses of Leon Festinger about dissonance
1. selective exposure prevents dissonance
2. post-decision dissonance creates a need for reassurance
3. minimal justification for action induces a shift in attitude
selective exposure
tendency to avoid exposure to info that creates cognitive dissonance because incompatible with current beliefs
post-decision dissonance
strong doubts experienced after making a close-call, important decision difficult to reverse
minimal justification
claim that the best way to stimulate attitude change in others is to offer JUST enough incentive to elicit counterattitudinal behavior (Stanford $1$/20 experiment)
counterattitudinal advocacy
publicly urging others to believe/do something that is opposed to what the advocate actually believes
self-perception theory
claim that we determine our attitudes the same way that outside observers do
CHAPTER 23. DRAMATISM
Dramatism developed by
Kenneth Burke
Dramatism located in...
Rhetorical tradition, somewhat interpretive
Kenneth Burke
Perhaps the most important twentieth-century rhetorician; developed dramatism
Identification
The recognized common ground between speaker and audience, such as physical characteristics, talents, occupations, etc.
Dramatistic Pentad
A tool to analyze how a speaker attempts to get an audience to accept his or her view of reality by using five key elements of the human drama—act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose
Act
The dramatistic term for what was done. Texts that emphasize act suggest realism.
Scene
The dramatistic term for the context for the act. Texts that emphasize scene downplay free will and reflect an attitude of situational determinism.
Agent
The dramatistic term for the person or kind of person who performs the act. Texts that emphasize agent feature idealism.
Agency
The dramatistic term for the means the agent used to do the deed. Texts that emphasize agency demonstrate pragmatism.
Purpose
The dramatistic term for the stated or implied goal of an act. Texts that emphasize purpose suggest the concerns of mysticism.
God Term
The word a speaker uses to which all other positive words are subservient.
Devil Term
The word a speaker uses that sums up all that is regarded as bad, wrong, or evil.
Guilt
Burke's catch-all term for tension, anxiety, embarrassment, shame, disgust, and other noxious feelings intrinsic in the human condition.
Mortification
Confession of guilt and request for forgiveness
Victimage
Scapegoating; the process of naming an external enemy as the source of all personal or public ills.
Dramatism summary
The use of language to create a symbolic drama in which audience and communicator become identified or consubstantial.
THANK YOU :)
NIM : 051603503125173
PSIKOLOGI KOMUNIKASI
CHAPTER 5. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
George Herbert Mead
Early social constructionist who believed that our thoughts, self-concept, and the wider community we live in are created through communication - symbolic interaction. (philosophy professor at University of Chicago for first three decades of 20th century)
Symbolic ineraction
The ongoing use of language and gestures in anticipation of how the other will react; a conversation; the way we learn to interpret the world
Mead believed that the true test of any theory is whether it is useful in solving complex social problems.
Herbert Blumer
Mead's chief disciple/student coined the term "symbolic interactionism"
Symbolic Interactionism is what kind of theory?
Interpretive theory that follows the socio-cultural tradition
According to Mead, human's are unique because we can talk to each other (symbolic interaction)- said it was the most human and humanizing activity that we engage in
Herbert Blumer stated three core principles of symbolic interactionism that deal with meaning, language, and thinking
Blumer's first premise of Meaning
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things; our interpretation is what counts; once people define a situation as real, it's very real in its consequences
Interactionist position on meaning-making
meaning-making is a community project
Interactionist's idea of causality
humans act on their definition of the situation; stimulus ----> interpretation ---> response
Blumer's second premise of Language
Meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other; meaning isn't inherent in objects nor is it pre-existent in a state of nature - it's negotiated through the use of language; names we use have no logical connection with the object at hand; words we use have default assumptions; significant symbols can be nonverbal and linguistic
What did Mead believe was the basis for human society?
symbolic naming
Interactionists claim the extent of knowing is dependent on the extent of naming
Blumer's third premise of Thinking an individual's interpretation of symbols is modified by his or her own thought processes. Symbolic interactionists describe thinking as inner conversation. mead called this "minding"
Minding
An inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions, and anticipate reactions before responding; self-talk; the pause that's reflective
Mead believed that animals act instinctively and without deliberation - they are unable to think reflectively. Mead's greatest contribution to our understanding of the way we think is his notion that humans have the unique capacity to take the role of the other; he was convinced that thinking is the mental conversation we have with others.
Taking the role of the other
The process of mentally imagining that you are someone else who is viewing you.
Looking-glass self
Mead's concept; the mental image that comes from taking the role of the other; the objective self; me (interactionist's claim this is socially constructed) - mead borrowed the phrase from sociologist Charles Cooley
Mead-Cooley hypothesis claims that "individuals' self- conceptions result from assimilating the judgments of significant others."
Symbolic interactionists are convinced the self is a function of language. without talk, there would be no self-concept
According to Mead, the self is an ongoing process combining the
"I" and the "me"
"I"
The subjective self; the spontaneous driving force that fosters all that is novel, unpredictable, and unorganized in the self. You never know your "I," because once it is known, it becomes your "me"
"Me"
The objective self; the image of self seen when one takes the role of the other. no "me" at birth; it's formed through continual symbolic interaction; seen as the organized society within the individual (according to Mead)
Generalized other
The composite mental image a person has of his or her self based on societal expectations and responses. Shapes how we think and interact within the community.
Society, according to Mead consists of individual actors who make their own choices- society in the making rather than society by previous design
Applications of Symbolic Interactionism
1. creating reality 2. meaningful research 3. generalized other 4. naming 5. self-fulfilling prophecy 6. symbol manipulation
Creating reality
goffman claims we are all involved in a constant negotiation with others to publicly define our identity and the nature of the situation
Mead advocates research through participant observation
Participant observation
A method of adopting the stance of an ignorant yet interested visitor who carefully notes what people say and do in order to discover how they interpret their world.
Name-calling can be devastating because the labels can force us to view ourselves in a warped mirror
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated.
Emmanuel Levinas
european Jewish philosopher; agrees with Mead that the self is socially constructed. Levinas' responsive "I" the self created by the way we respond to others (not the way others respond to us-what Mead believed); consists of both Mead's "I" and "me"
Ethical Echo term used by Levinas; The reminder that we are responsible to take care of each other; I am my brother's keeper. the way each of us meets that obligation shapes our "I"
Face of the "Other"
A human signpost that points to our ethical obligation to care for the other before we care for self.
Critique of Symbolic Interactionism poor objective (scientific) theory bc it doesn't meet scientific standards of prediction and testability; doesn't call for a reform of society; The theory's fluid boundaries, vague concepts, and undisciplined approach don't lend them- selves to an elegant summary; suffers from lack of clarity; may suffer from lack of overstatement
CHAPTER 7. EXPECTANCY VIOLATIONS THEORY
Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) originally focused on the expectations people have about the _____________ behavior of others.
Nonverbal
The study of a person's use of space is called:
Proxemics
Researcher Edward Hall claimed what four zones defined spatial distances for North Americans?
Intimate, personal, social, and public
Your own workspace and computer is considered:
Primary territory
The city park constitutes:
Public territory
Burgoon and Hale argue that two types of expectancies exist: pre-interactional and interactional. Pre-interactional expectations include:
The skills communicators possess before entering a conversation.
Violations of expectancies have _____________, or the ability to cause people to pay attention to the source of the arousal.
Arousal value
The distance at which one feels discomfort in the presence of another is called:
The threat threshold refers to the positive or negative assessment of an unexpected behavior.
Violation valence
EVT's original focus on personal space relates to which criterion for evaluating theory?
Scope
Created by:
Judee Burgoon (1988)
Edward T. Hall's (1966) work on PROXIMICS:
•Intimate Distance (0 - 18 inches)
•Personal Distance (1.5 - 4 feet)
•Social Distance (4 - 12 feet)
•Public Distance (12 - 25 feet)
Hall argued that effective communicators adjust:
Their nonverbal behavior to conform to the expectations of their communication partners.
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory:
•Expectations drive human interaction
•Expectations for human behavior are learned
•People make predictions about nonverbal behaviors
Burgoon pointed out people can:
Either conform or violate expectations.
Burgoon argued that sometimes violating the norms/expectations can be:
A superior strategy to conforming. She also realized that these norms differ by culture.
Territoriality:
A person's sense of ownership of an area or object.
Primary territory:
Exclusive domain over an area or object.
Secondary territory:
A person's affiliation with an area or object.
Public territories:
Open spaces for everyone.
When someone violates our expectation in communication:
We may have a negative - or a positive - reaction.
CHAPTER 16. COGNITIVE DISSONACE THEORY
dissonance : discord between behavior and belief
cognitive dissonance
distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person's two beliefs or a belief and an action
three hypotheses of Leon Festinger about dissonance
1. selective exposure prevents dissonance
2. post-decision dissonance creates a need for reassurance
3. minimal justification for action induces a shift in attitude
selective exposure
tendency to avoid exposure to info that creates cognitive dissonance because incompatible with current beliefs
post-decision dissonance
strong doubts experienced after making a close-call, important decision difficult to reverse
minimal justification
claim that the best way to stimulate attitude change in others is to offer JUST enough incentive to elicit counterattitudinal behavior (Stanford $1$/20 experiment)
counterattitudinal advocacy
publicly urging others to believe/do something that is opposed to what the advocate actually believes
self-perception theory
claim that we determine our attitudes the same way that outside observers do
CHAPTER 23. DRAMATISM
Dramatism developed by
Kenneth Burke
Dramatism located in...
Rhetorical tradition, somewhat interpretive
Kenneth Burke
Perhaps the most important twentieth-century rhetorician; developed dramatism
Identification
The recognized common ground between speaker and audience, such as physical characteristics, talents, occupations, etc.
Dramatistic Pentad
A tool to analyze how a speaker attempts to get an audience to accept his or her view of reality by using five key elements of the human drama—act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose
Act
The dramatistic term for what was done. Texts that emphasize act suggest realism.
Scene
The dramatistic term for the context for the act. Texts that emphasize scene downplay free will and reflect an attitude of situational determinism.
Agent
The dramatistic term for the person or kind of person who performs the act. Texts that emphasize agent feature idealism.
Agency
The dramatistic term for the means the agent used to do the deed. Texts that emphasize agency demonstrate pragmatism.
Purpose
The dramatistic term for the stated or implied goal of an act. Texts that emphasize purpose suggest the concerns of mysticism.
God Term
The word a speaker uses to which all other positive words are subservient.
Devil Term
The word a speaker uses that sums up all that is regarded as bad, wrong, or evil.
Guilt
Burke's catch-all term for tension, anxiety, embarrassment, shame, disgust, and other noxious feelings intrinsic in the human condition.
Mortification
Confession of guilt and request for forgiveness
Victimage
Scapegoating; the process of naming an external enemy as the source of all personal or public ills.
Dramatism summary
The use of language to create a symbolic drama in which audience and communicator become identified or consubstantial.
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